How to read a manifesto
A manifesto is a public set of election commitments, but whether any one commitment can be delivered depends on legal power, the route to a decision or law, and money approved through the budget.
The short answer
Begin by separating a manifesto from a law. A manifesto can tell voters what a party or candidate says it intends to do, but it is not itself the legal instrument that changes a rule, creates a programme or releases public money. The Court of Appeal’s decision in the Murtini Kasman case is the Malaysian authority usually cited for that point.
The first practical test is: which government has the power over this subject? Read the promise against the Federal List, State List and Concurrent List in the Ninth Schedule. A state manifesto cannot by itself change a federal subject, and a federal manifesto cannot simply take over a State List subject; the Constitution contains limited exceptions and shared areas. Sabah and Sarawak also have supplementary lists, so a promise concerning either state needs the additional constitutional check.
Next, ask what has to happen for the promise to take effect. Words such as “amend”, “repeal”, “criminalise” or “create a right” are signs to look for an Act or enactment that must change. At the federal level that means a Bill and the parliamentary process.
A promise to change how an existing programme is run may instead be administrative, but only if the responsible minister, ministry or agency already has the power under the relevant law and enough funding to do it.
For a promise that costs money, look for:
- the unit being counted
- the number of people or projects
- the years covered
- the recurring annual cost
- where the money is said to come from
A price stated in a manifesto is not the same thing as an approved allocation. At federal level, the annual estimates, Supply Bill and enacted Budget show the formal route by which expenditure is proposed and authorised; state-funded promises should be checked against the relevant state budget and state assembly record.
After an election, keep the original wording and date of the promise.
- Hansard
- search for a Bill, ministerial answer or debate.
- Budget, Supply Act and ministry documents
- check for an allocation, programme rules or implementation announcement.
An announcement can show that a decision was made, while a later budget line, parliamentary record or audit report can add evidence about money and operation.
What the sources say
What a manifesto does in law
The Court of Appeal held, in State Government of Selangor & Anor v Murtini Kasman & Ors, that an election manifesto was not legally enforceable when claimants sought payment said to have been promised in a campaign manifesto.
The case concerned a claim based on a political party’s campaign promise after that party formed the Selangor government; the Court of Appeal case record identifies the parties, the three judges and the appeal number.
Start with the level of government
Article 74 of the Federal Constitution gives Parliament power to make laws on the Federal and Concurrent Lists, and a State Legislature power to make laws on the State and Concurrent Lists.
The Ninth Schedule places external affairs, defence, internal security, civil and criminal law, and federal finance on the Federal List; it places, among other matters, Islamic law within stated limits, land and local government on the State List.
Social welfare, public health and sanitation, town and country planning, housing, and some water matters appear on the Concurrent List, so the relevant federal and state laws both need checking.
Federal executive authority generally extends to matters on which Parliament may make laws, while state executive authority generally extends to matters on which that State Legislature may make laws.
Federal law prevails to the extent that it is inconsistent with State law; the Constitution also gives Parliament specified routes to legislate on State List matters.
The route from promise to action
A federal promise that requires changing the law needs a Bill to pass both Houses of Parliament, subject to the Constitution’s exceptions, and to become law and be published.
A promise involving a tax, public borrowing, or expenditure from the Federal Consolidated Fund has additional constitutional rules on how the Bill or amendment may be introduced.
A ministerial or administrative promise still needs a legal power and the responsible government level; whether an existing law gives that power is specific to the programme and statute concerned.
Money and the public record
For each financial year, the Federal Constitution requires estimated federal receipts and expenditure to be laid before the Dewan Rakyat.
Federal expenditure from the Consolidated Fund is provided for through a Supply Bill, and a supplementary estimate and Supply Bill are required where an approved amount is insufficient or a new unappropriated purpose arises.
The Ministry of Finance records that Budget 2026’s Supply Bill and Development Expenditure motion were approved by Parliament, then received Royal Assent and were gazetted as the Supply Act 2026.
Parliament’s Digital Hansard provides searchable records of debates in the Dewan Rakyat, Dewan Negara and Special Chamber; the Ministry of Digital says the searchable system does not replace Parliament’s official Hansard documents.
The Auditor General’s reports cover government financial statements, financial management and activities of departments and agencies, providing a later source for checking some spending and implementation records.
Where accounts differ
No winner is picked.
No provision requiring political parties to publish a policy-costing document, or an official body to verify one before an election, was located in the Election Commission’s published election-law list or its Election Offences Act page. Candidate election-expense statements are a different record from the cost of governing policies.
Common questions
Are Malaysian manifestos legally binding?
No. The Court of Appeal held that an election manifesto was not legally enforceable in State Government of Selangor & Anor v Murtini Kasman & Ors, a case about a claim for an allowance said to have been promised in a campaign manifesto. That does not prevent a later law, contract, budget measure or administrative decision from creating legal duties of its own.
Can a state manifesto promise a federal policy?
It can state an aim, but a state government cannot by itself make federal law or exercise federal executive power. Check the subject in the Ninth Schedule: Parliament legislates on the Federal and Concurrent Lists, while a State Legislature legislates on the State and Concurrent Lists. The Constitution also has limited exceptions, so a specific proposal may need closer legal checking.
How can I tell whether a promise needs a new law?
Look for whether it changes a legal rule, offence, tax, entitlement or statutory body. If it does, find the current Act or enactment and look for a Bill that would amend it; at federal level, Bills pass through Parliament before becoming law. If the relevant law already gives a minister or agency discretion, an administrative decision may be enough, but the legal power and funding still need checking.
Are manifesto promises independently costed?
Do not assume so. No requirement for parties to publish policy costings or for an official body to verify them before an election was located in the Election Commission materials checked; that is different from the legal reporting of candidate campaign expenses. Look for the party’s assumptions, annual cost, funding source and whether the promise needs a Budget allocation.
Where can I check what was actually delivered?
Start with Hansard, the Budget and the responsible ministry’s announcements. Hansard records parliamentary debate and answers; the enacted Budget records approved federal spending authority; ministry material can identify the programme, rules or commencement. For later evidence about spending and implementation, check the Auditor General’s reports as well.
Parliament of MalaysiaMinistry of FinanceNational Audit Department